World top 10 super human

WHAT IS NETWORKING

For best describing the answer of this question fist we have to learn what is network, its characteristic and how its is work.

WHAT IS NETWORK:- 

A Computer Network is a group of network that are connect together to communicate ans share resources such as files,printers and email, a network protocol control the network communication.

                             "A Network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources(such as printer and CD's), exchange and transfer files or allow electronic communication. The Computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellite, or infrared light beams."

                                                                                                In actually network is like a way that we use for networking. if we want to doing networking we must have connected all computers in a manner to connect a specific network, is called networking.

NETWORK MODELS:-

(i)Centralized Network:

A type of Network where all users connect to a central server, which is the acting agent for all communication and the user account information. Most public instant messaging platforms use a centralized network also called a centralized server structure. Centralized network are also called. "hierarchical networks" and "host based networks".

(ii) Client-Server Network:

A Client-Server network is a network in which computer functionality is divided  in to two roles: Server computer, which provide services and control network operations and client computer.

(iii) Peer to Peer Network:

A peer to peer network, sometimes called a work-group, is a network in which resources sharing, processing and communications are completely decentralized. All clients and computers are equal in terms and permission.

NETWORK INTERFACE CARD  

A Network Interface Card or N.I.C. is an electronic device that provide a platform to a computer to connect to connect on the network. It is considered as a hardware part of Computer. 

Characteristic of N.I.C.

All network adapter have a globally unique physical address burned on to the card, its mean at the time of making card manufacture registered  it. The physical address uniquely identifies every individual card that connects to the network cable or media, that's why the physical address is also called the "MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL" , MAC address.

What is MAC

The MAC address is a unique value associated with a network adapter. MAC addresses are also known as hardware addresses or physical addresses. They uniquely identify an adapter on a LAN.
MAC addresses are 12-digit hexadecimal numbers (48 bits in length). By convention, MAC addresses are usually written in one of the following two formats:

                                          MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS

                                          MM-MM-MM-SS-SS-SS

The first half of a MAC address contains the ID number of the adapter manufacturer. These IDs are regulated by an Internet standards body. The second half of a MAC address represents the serial number assigned to the adapter by the manufacturer. In the example, 00:A0:C9:14:C8:29

   The prefix 00-00-0E indicates the manufacturer is Fujitsu Limited, Japan

Why MAC is must:

Recall that TCP/IP and other mainstream networking architectures generally adopt the OSI Model. In this model, network functionality is subdivided into layers. MAC addresses function at the data link layer (layer 2 in the OSI model). They allow computers to uniquely identify themselves on a network at this relatively low level.

Difference between MAC and IP:

Whereas MAC addressing works at the data link layer, IP addressing functions at the network layer (layer 3). It's a slight oversimplification, but one can think of IP addressing as supporting the software implementation and MAC addresses as supporting the hardware implementation of the network stack. The MAC address generally remains fixed and follows the network device, but the IP address changes as the network device moves from one network to another.

IP networks maintain a mapping between the IP address of a device and its MAC address. This mapping is known as the ARP cache or ARP table. ARP supports the logic for obtaining this mapping and keeping the cache up to date.

       Hardware Vendors and Registered MAC Address IDs 

Company                                                                                                                   Hex Address

Xerox Corporation, USA	00-00-00 – 00-00-09
Omron Tateisi Electronics Co., Japan	00-00-0A
Matrix Corporation, USA	00-00-0B
Cisco Systems, Inc., USA	00-00-0C
Fibronics LTD., Israel	00-00-0D
Fujitsu Limited, Japan	00-00-0E
Next, Inc., USA	00-00-0F
Sytek Inc., USA	00-00-10
Normerel Systemes, France	00-00-11
Information Technology Limited, United Kingdom	00-00-12
Camex, USA	00-00-13
Netronix, USA	00-00-14
Datapoint Corporation, USA	00-00-15
Du Pont Pixel Systems, United Kingdom	00-00-16
Tekelec, USA	00-00-17
Webster Computer Corporation, USA	00-00-18
Applied Dynamics International, USA	00-00-19
Advanced Micro Devices, USA	00-00-1A
Novell Inc., USA	00-00-1B
Bell Technologies, USA	00-00-1C

1.1-WHAT PIECES ARE FOUND IN A COMPUTER?

(i) Adapter - Most of the time it refers to a card that plugs into the motherboard adding special capabilities not originally found on the computer.Other times it refers to tools to convert one connector type to another. 

(ii) Cables - A thick wire that connects the computer to the external device or power. 

(iii)Cache - An interface between the CPU and the memory (RAM and ROM). It helps the CPU keep running even though the RAM may be too slow.It does this by keeping a copy of what the processor has read/written. 

(iv)Card Slot - 

1. HARDWARE: “WHAT DO I NEED TO KNOW TO BUY A COMPUTER?”

What is a computer? I guess the easiest way I can explain it is as a little machine that follows very specific instructions over and over. A computer cannot learn and,unless told to do so, won’t respond to anything. Think of it as a very dumb dog that you have to teach to catch a ball every day and every time you want to play.

Computers do very complex math. Mind you, it is always related to the basics: add,subtract, multiply and divide. But as anyone who has had algebra and calculus will tell you: if you do enough of these basics, you can get approximations of more sophisticated math that are pretty close to reality. Computers do this math very quickly. Often these calculations are done in millions per second. Imagine multiplying 10 million pairs of multi-digit numbers per second. I have a hard enough time myself doing a 3-digit multiplication in less than a minute.

  

Computers can store a vast amount of information and retrieve it at extraordinary speeds.When everything works correctly, this data is as fresh and unblemished by time as when it was first stored. It can record information about everything (given it has sufficient

storage capacity). While this may not seem to be a great achievement, think about this:when you last went to the store, how much did you pay for each item you bought? Computers can store this kind of information a lot better than we can recall it. Also, one

of those DVD-ROMs that we see so frequently can store the entire Encyclopedia Britannica along with photos.(Please note that if you buy their DVD-ROM set, it has more than just text and photos. So, the set has several DVD-ROMs.)

What have computers done for us? Consider the following: 
1. Made the world incredibly smaller by facilitating communications.
2. Advanced science and medical discovery more in 10 years than in centuries of history.
3. Designed cars, roads, cities, clothing, etc.
4. Tested transportation long before the prototypes ever left their studios.
5. Exploded our imaginations with color and virtual reality.
6. Controlled our market-place and caused the “Black Monday” crash.
7. Opened freedom of speech to areas all over the world via the Internet.

The list goes on and on. The computer has done a lot to shape the modern world—some good and some bad. In all, it has been a great blessing when properly used. What can computers do for you? Well, hopefully, this text will show you.

 

 

 

WIRELESS SECURITY

Setting up  a wireless router is fairly easy if you follow the instruction that come with the device. Still, if you're not confident about setting up a router, take the help of a techie friend, or your internet service provider.

PASSWORD PROTECTION

You wouldn't want anybody to mooch off your internet connection.Restrict access to your network by using WPA2 encryption and changing the default router password.

PREVENT MISUSE

You can also protect your network from misuse with the help of parental controls and bandwidth monitoring tools.

GUEST LOGIN

Create an alternative login for guests. It's safer and smarter.

FIREWALL

Some routers include a firewall, providing blanket protection to all the devices on the network from possible hack attacks.

WIIRELESS USB DONGLES

With a wireless USB dongle, you can add Wi-Fi or Bluetooth connectivity to your PC without upgrading it. First, you need to fix on the one you need....

WHICH DONGLE IS RIGHT FOR YOU  

Bluetooth dongle:

Allow you to use Bluetooth  to connect to other devices.

Wi-Fi dongle:

Adds wireless abilities to a PC without built-in Wi-Fi.

3G dongle:

In case your network is internet-dependent, consider a 3G dongle as a backup. Just make sure your router supports these 3G USB sticks. Besides, portable wireless adaptors that take 3G dongles will also allow you to share your connection on the move.

WHAT IS WIRELESS ROUTER

WIRELESS ROUTER

This piece of hardware is essential to going wireless. It allow devices with built-in Wi-Fi -laptop, smartphones, tablets and e-book readers to connect to the internet without the need of cables.

Now depending on type of your connection, you will need.....

An ADSL Route: 

If you use your telephone line for internet access, you will need to invest in such a router. You can also get this router from your service provide(MTNL or  BSNL), for a small fee.

Non-ADSL:

For other connections, like if your service provide is your local cable operator: then you will need a non-ADSL router. These routers take input from the RJ45 connector that you would generally attach to the network port on your desktop PC or laptop in a LAN card.

BENEFITS

Internet sharing:

A wireless router allows multiple users- with Wi-Fi enabled devices- to share a single internet connection.

Sharing  data over WiFi:

If the router has a USB port, you will be able to share the contents of a flash drive or portable hard drive with other.Wi-F- enabled devices in the network.Some routers even printers to be shared via its USB port [You will need to refer to the router's setup guide to do this]  but it will make your printer accessible to more devices on your network.

Control Internet Access:

You will also be able to configure the kind of content that can be accessed from the web. More importantly, the router can also be used as your first line of defence against internet hackers.
Note: How, about wireless security you can find it on wireless security link. 

HOW TO BUY

Look for the '802.11n'  standard:

The 'n' standard indicates the router's maximum speed over an un-wired  connection (the older ones being 'a' , 'b' and 'g'). There is a newer 'ac' standard, but 'n' will serve all your present-day purposes.

Consider dual band:

Wi-Fi routers, microwave ovens, cordless phones and Bluetooth device operate in the same2.4Ghz frequency band. Understandably, this cause congestion, reducing the router's signal strength. In such cases, you would be better off with a dual-band router. Such a router allow for connection over the additional 5Ghz band simultaneously.

USB ports(s):

Like we mentioned earlier, router with USB ports will let you plug flash drives, hard disks and even printers to share these resources over the network.

Multiple antennas:

External antennas increase the overall range of your router; ideal for when you might want to access the router from behind a wall or  glass doors.

WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VIRTUALIZATION AND CLOUD COMPUTING?

While virtualization and cloud computing might share a common bond, there is a difference between them and it’s important to understand what that difference is.

One common misconception I routinely notice when talking with people about technology is the idea that virtualization and cloud computing are the same thing. It’s not impossible to see where this conclusion stems from, given the influx of overwhelming information concerning both concepts. While these technologies might share a common bond of maximizing computing resources, there is a difference between them and it’s important to understand what that difference is.

Virtualization in a nutshell

To put it simply, virtualization is the process of simulating “virtual” versions of infrastructure resources, such as computing environments, operating systems, storage devices or network components, as opposed to creating actual or physical versions of those same resources. For example, you have a physical server (the “host”) that controls all of its physical resources (the operating system, memory, storage, etc.) – those resources can be allocated to virtual machines (“VM”s) that run in containers provided by that host. Virtualization enables multiple instances of infrastructure resources to run on the same hardware, with access to those resources being controlled by a hypervisor (I’ll get to that in a second.) Take a look at the picture below.

 

 A hypervisor, also referred to as a virtual machine manager (“VMM”), is the software layer that controls access to the host’s physical hardware, and creates and runs the VMs. There are two types of hypervisors: bare metal/native or hosted. In a bare metal instance, the hypervisor runs directly on the host’s hardware and allows running multiple operating systems on the same physical hardware. Hosted hypervisors run on top of the host’s operating system, and additional operating system environments are run within the host’s OS. In a nutshell, bare metal hypervisors run directly on hardware while hosted hypervisors run on top of an operating system such as Windows or Linux.

 

That’s great…but where does the cloud come in?

Cloud computing is the delivery of shared computing resources, software or data as a service via the Internet, as opposed to virtualization, which is part of a physical infrastructure. For users of either technology, it may appear that the two are one in the same, as the applications or data they’re accessing are pulled from a virtual machine somewhere unconnected to a physical host. That’s partly where some of the confusion happens.

Cloud computing is built on top of a virtualized infrastructure, consisting of compute, storage and network components. There are a variety of different service models that represent cloud computing, such as SaaS, IaaS, and PaaS (I’ll cover these in a later post), and there are many key characteristics that define the “cloud”, such as agility, scalability, automation, and on-demand service delivery.

 So there you have it

By itself, virtualization can reduce complexity for end users while allowing an organization’s IT resources to be utilized more effectively. But cloud computing takes the use of those resources to the next level by delivering access to those components on-demand as a service, further reducing complexity, cost and burden. Essentially, virtualization is a logical action for businesses to take when considering the adoption of a cloud computing strategy.

LARGER ADDRESS SPACE FOR GLOBAL REACHABILITY AND SCALABILITY

The availability of an almost unlimited number of IP addresses is the most compelling benefit of implementing IPv6 networks. Compared to IPv4, IPv6 increases the number of address bits by a factor of 4, from 32 bits to 128 bits. The 128 bits provide approximately 3.4x1038 addressable nodes, enough to allocate about 1030 addresses per person on this planet. Figure 1 shows the general format of an IPv6 address.

Figure 1: IPv6 Address Format

 The ability to provide a unique address for each network device enables end-to-end reachability, which is especially important for residential IP telephony. IPv6 also provides full support for application protocols without requiring special processing at the edges of the networks, eliminating the problems associated with NAT.

FEATURES AND BENEFIT OF USING IPV6

In addition to meeting the anticipated future demand for globally unique IP addresses. IPV6 provides the following benefits to network and IT professional.

• Larger address space for global reachability  and scalability.
• Simplified header  format for efficient packet handling.
• Hierarchical network architecture for routing efficiency.
• Support for widely deployed routing protocols.
•  Autoconfiguration and plug-and-play support.
• Elimination of need for network address translation (NAT) and application’s layered gateway (ALG).
• Embedded security with mandatory IPSec implementation.
• Enhanced support for Mobile IP and Mobile Computing Devices.
• Increased number of multicast addresses.

I.P. V6

These details provides an introduction for those who are unfamiliar  and basics of ipv6 addresses and ipv6 services. The basics of IPv6 addressing are discussed, as are the various address types, address
assignment options, new DHCP(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol ) features, and DNS(Domain Name System). Ipv6 is the latest version of Internet Protocol, its launches by CISCO SYSTEM.

An Overview

 Every device on the Internet must be assigned an IP-Address to connect or communicate with each other and all over the world. Due to increasing number of new devices and more address needing on internet also run out of Internet address of ipv4, the demand for more ip address to be seen. Pv6 is required because of the fast depletion of IPv4 addresses. IPv6 will enhance security of the TCP/IP stack, but most importantly increase the number of IP addresses available to use. This will essentially remove the need for network address translation (NAT).

What is IPv6

IPv6 is the sixth revision to the Internet Protocol and the successor to IPv4. It functions similarly to IPv4 in that it provides the unique, numerical IP addresses necessary for Internet-enabled devices to communicate. However, it does sport one major difference: it utilizes 128-bit addresses. IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force to pledge with the long-prepared for problem of Ipv4 consumption.

How does IPv6 solve this problem?

As previously stated, IPv6 utilizes 128-bit Internet addresses. Therefore, it can support 2^128 Internet addresses — 340,282,366,920,938,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 of them to be exact. That's a lot of addresses, so many that it requires a hexadecimal system to display the addresses. In other words, there are more than enough IPv6 addresses to keep the Internet operational for a very, very long time.

 

HYPERVISOR

WHAT IS HYPERVISOR

In virtualization technology, hypervisor is a software program that manages multiple operatin system(or multiple instances of the same operating system) on a single computer system. The hypervisor manages the system's processor, memory, and other resources to allocate what each operating system requires. Hypervisors are designed for a particular processor architecture and may also be called virtualization managers. It is a chip that already  built in motherboard by its vendor.

VIRTUALIZATION

WHAT IS VIRTUALIZATION

When people talk about virtualization they’re usually referring to server virtualization, which means partitioning one physical server into several virtual servers, or machines. Each virtual machine can interact independently with other devices, applications, data and users as though it were a separate physical resource. 

Different virtual machines can run different operating systems and multiple applications while sharing the resources of a single physical computer. And, because each virtual machine is isolated from other virtualized machines, if one crashes, it doesn’t affect the others. 

HYPERVISOR

Hypervisor software is the secret sauce that makes virtualization possible. This software, also known as a virtualization manager, sits between the hardware and the operating system, and decouples the operating system and applications from the hardware. The hypervisor assigns the amount of access that the operating systems and applications have with the processor and other hardware resources, such as memory and disk input/output.

In addition to using virtualization technology to partition one machine into several virtual machines, you can also use virtualization solutions to combine multiple physical resources into a single virtual resource. A good example of this is storage virtualization, where multiple network storage resources are pooled into what appears as a single storage device for easier and more efficient management of these resources. Other types of virtualization you may hear about include:  

• Network virtualization splits available bandwidth in a network into independent channels that can be assigned to specific servers or devices.
• Application virtualization separates applications from the hardware and the operating system, putting them in a container that can be relocated without disrupting other systems.
• Desktop virtualization enables a centralized server to deliver and manage individualized desktops remotely. This gives users a full client experience, but lets IT staff provision, manage, upgrade and patch them virtually, instead of physically.

Virtualization was first introduced in the 1960s by IBM to boost utilization of large, expensive mainframe systems by partitioning them into logical, separate virtual machines that could run multiple applications and processes at the same time. In the 1980s and 1990s, this centrally shared mainframe model gave way to a distributed, client-server computing model, in which many low-cost x86 servers and desktops independently run specific applications.

While virtualization faded from the limelight for a while, it is now one of the hottest trends in the industry again, as organizations aim to increase the utilization, flexibility and cost-effectiveness in a distributed computing environment. VMWare, Citrix, Microsoft, IBM, RedHat and many other vendors offer virtualization solutions. 

WHY SHOULD YOU CARE

Virtualization can help you shift your IT focus from managing boxes to improving the services you provide to the organization. If you are managing multiple servers and desktops, virtualization can help you to:

• Save money: Companies often run just one application per server because they don’t want to risk the possibility that one application will crash and bring down another on the same machine. Estimates indicate that most x86 servers are running at an average of only 10 to 15 percent of total capacity. With virtualization, you can turn a single purpose server into a multi-tasking one, and turn multiple servers into a computing pool that can adapt more flexibly to changing workloads.
• Save energy: Businesses spend a lot of money powering unused server capacity. Virtualization reduces the number of physical servers, reducing the energy required to power and cool them.
• Save time: With fewer servers, you can spend less time on the manual tasks required for server maintenance. On the flip side, pooling many storage devices into a single virtual storage device, you can perform tasks such as backup, archiving and recovery more easily and more quickly. It’s also much faster to deploy a virtual machine than it is to deploy a new physical server.
• Reduce desktop management headaches: Managing, securing and upgrading desktops and notebooks can be a hassle. Desktop virtualization solutions let you manage user desktops centrally, making it easier to keep desktops updated and secure.  

 WHAT TO CONSIDER

Since virtualization makes it easy to set up new virtual servers, you may end up with a lot of servers to manage. Each server needs to be managed just as if it was a physical server. Keeping track of where everything —  and how your virtual resources are using physical resources — is vital, so shop for solutions that have easy-to-use tools that help you monitor and measure use. 

Virtualization isn’t a magic bullet for everything. While many solutions are great candidates for running virtually, applications that need a lot of memory, processing power or input/output may be best left on a dedicated server.

For all of the upside virtualization isn’t magic, and it can introduce some new challenges.  But in most cases the many cost and efficiency advantages will outweigh any issues, and virtualization will continue to grow gain popularity.

Did this help you understand virtualization? Let me know, and send me any additional questions you have on the topic. Also, please send your suggestions for other technology terms and areas that you’d like explained in upcoming columns. You can reach me at amitsharma6388@gmail.com or my Twitter handle, lauriemccabe. For perspectives on other industry topics, visit my blog at networkharp.blogspot.com